I have pointed out to you several times that writing and reading mirror each other. Each is a communication process that involves a sender and receiver of information.  When you play the role of reader, you are the receiver of information.  When you play the role of writer, you are the sender of information.  In fact, you are both the creator and sender of the information.

 

There are few processes in the human world that are more complicated than the creative process. For some people, remarkably, the creative process seems to spring forth full blown from the writer’s head (as did Athena from the head of Zeus. If you don’t know this reference to Greek Mythology, Look it up!). 

 

Some craftspeople, for example, can pick up their tools and begin working, creating the image of the final product as they go along, anticipating (thinking ahead), and ending with a finished work of art that is appealing and attempts to convey the message or evoke (bring forth) the feelings that the artist wishes to convey. 

 

Most artists and crafts people must spend a good amount of time (a good deal of time) thinking about what they are about to create. When they have an idea of what they will create; they consider the materials they will use (sometimes called the medium meaning, way, or means).

 

The term media refers to the means of communication, such as newspapers, radio and television; medium also has the meaning of average.

 

They consider the tools they will use. They often draft a plan or sketch of the final product (sometimes in great detail). They assemble all the necessary tools and materials; they decide on an order of tasks or actions; and then, when they are sure about what they have to do and how they will do it, then they begin work.

 

As you can see, much of the hard work is up front, in the preparations for the task. The actual creation of the product takes place towards the end of the creative process.

 

For example, remember the illustration used earlier about baking a cake?  First, one decides what cake to bake. Usually one follows a recipe (the plan). Then one gathers the ingredients (the materials) and the cooking utensils (the tools) necessary for the job. Often one will review the steps in the recipe to be sure to be able to anticipate difficulties along the way.  

 

(Preheating an oven is an example of anticipating what will happen next; often a recipe will remind you to do this, but sometimes they don’t and it is always worth remembering, is it not? Only then should the baker begin to bake!)

 

Writing is a creative process as well. Remarkably, as with some bakers and cakes, some people can just sit down and begin writing and write all the way through to the end.  They have the talent to do this and their finished work will be effective (the message gets across) and coherent (understandable).

 

Not many of us can do this.  Most of us must think hard before expressing our thoughts in writing. There is nothing worse than staring at a blank page, knowing you have to write something, but not knowing what to write or what to do about it.

 

Here is what you must do: 

 

You must understand writing as a process with specific steps that must be followed. You must learn to put on the writing process spectacles (ala Herr Kant) and see the task from the perspective of a writer. Then you must follow the steps in the writing process.

 

Steps to become a self-confident writer:

 

1. Prewriting

2. Brainstorming

3. Note taking

4. Outlining

5. Drafting (first)

6. Editing

7. Drafting (second)

8. Editing

9. Proofreading

Let us look at each of these in detail:

 

Step 1: Prewriting

 

Before writing, there are many things to consider.  The most important of these are:

 

a.Who are you?

b.What are you writing?

c.Why are you writing this?

d.Who will read what you are writing? 

e.How should it be written? 

Who are you? The spectacles which you don (put on) will determine the perspective (viewpoint) from which you approach this task. The role each of us plays changes depending on the circumstances around us: when at work, you are an employee; when corresponding with the IRS (Internal Revenue Service) you are a taxpayer; when writing to your Congressman, you are a voter. Here, now, the role you are playing is that of student writer. 

 

What are you writing? You will be writing practice essays at this time. The first will be about the Declaration of Independence.

 

Why are you writing this?  At this time, you are writing to demonstrate your control or command over the English language.  Specifically, you are attempting to show that you can write standard formal English.

 

Who will read what you are writing? Who is your audience? As a writer, you must understand the intended audience for the document. In your case, as a college student, your audience is composed of college professors.  They will tell you exactly what they want (and you will have an opportunity to ask questions to clarify). And then it is your task to provide the proof for them that you in fact understand (have learned) the subject matter.

 

            If you want to succeed, then give them what they want!

 

This is not a forum for your ego (this is not a place to show off). It is a time to take their guidance and suggestions and show them that you have understood what they are teaching by changing your writing to conform to their criticisms and/or expectations. Later on in your academic career you will be able to express yourself in your own way: for now, you must learn and then perform (prove).

 

How should it be written? How should you structure what you are writing? Depending on what it is you are writing, the structure will be different. A letter has a different format than an essay.  A business memorandum (memo) has a different format than an e-mail. A research paper has a different format than an examination (exam) question answer.

 

Here you are learning to write essays at the freshman college level. At the end of this chapter there is a discussion of the essay, its components, its structure and outlining.  Then there are several sample outlines for you to follow and adapt to your needs.

 

Step Two:  Brainstorming

 

What does this mean? Look it up! It means to create a storm in your brain: to think, devise, dream up, come up with or suggest ideas. This is a thinking stage.  You should freely associate ideas in your mind concerning the topic you are writing about.  It is helpful to jot down ideas and thoughts; sometimes the act of writing down an idea can lead to another one, and so on. 

 

In class, I always provide common experiences for example, (a reading, a film, or a role play exercise) that the students share and discuss. This provides for brainstorming.

 

In your case, you could discuss your ideas for your essay with a friend, another student, a co-worker or a family member or simply think by yourself. For example, suppose you were to brainstorm regarding the essay about writing your own “Declaration of Independence” as a student. 

 

You might think about what things you would want to see done differently on campus.  Students often raise issues such as the cost of textbooks in the bookstore, the quality of food in the cafeteria or the accessibility of computer stations. 

 

Then you might list some of the ways these things could be improved.  These thoughts could become the basis for your essay. Try it! 

 

The more essays you write, the easier it will become, so take a moment to write some things down.

 

Step Three: Note taking

 

In this step, you take your informal ideas from your brainstorming activity, sort through them and decide what is relevant, useful or important to include.  

 

You think about what will be effective; what points you may want to make; what examples to use. You may need to or want to do some reading and/or research. 

 

When you are ready, you will prepare an outline of your intended work. 

 

Step Four: The Outline

 

Perhaps one of the scariest and most confusing skills for many people is outlining. If you were to draw an outline of a leaf, typically you would draw the outside edges and perhaps some of the structure of the leaf, for example:

 

This outline shows the borders and the basic structure. There are only major details, there are not any minor details, or other information about what might be within the borders. This is similar to the meaning of outline I am using here.

 

Essentially, a written outline is a symbolic representation of the structure of what you are writing (or reading). For example, if you are writing about baking a cake, perhaps your outline would look like this:

 

Baking a Cake

 

1. Recipe

2. Ingredients 

   1. Flour

   2. Sugar

   3. Water

3. The preparation process

   1. tools

      1. mixing bowls

      2. baking pans

      3. baking utensils

4. The baking process

5. Preparing the cake for eating

6. Serving the cake

 

A lot of thinking goes into outlining. We will learn and practice outlining skills later in this chapter. [Don’t worry!]

 

For now, you need to know that an outline has Major Headings (e.g., recipe, ingredients), Sub-Headings (such as flour, sugar and water) and Minor Headings (for example, round baking pans). These headings need not be full sentences (they can be words, phrases or clauses).  These headings should communicate to you what it is that you want to say about them (they should remind you to look at your notes about something, for example).  You will create sentences out of these headings and references when you write. Hence (So), you want to include a sufficient amount of detail in the outline because this will make the actual writing easier.

 

Step Five: First Draft

 

This is your first attempt to write your essay (document or research paper; in the case of the latter, you will have performed much research by this point in the process).

 

You should proceed to write, following your outline.  (You might want to review the structure of a paragraph that is in Chapter I.) The simplest way to proceed is for the

 

1. major topic headings of your outline to become topic sentences for your paragraphs

2. sub-headings become your sentences that discuss, explain or present the information 

3. minor headings become your examples.

 

Step Six: Editing

Here you are reading to see if your essay makes sense and communicates (conveys) the intended information to the readers.

 

First of all, has the structure of what you have written followed your outline?

 

• Is there an introduction?

• Is there a conclusion?

• Is the essay long enough? (You are looking for a minimum 350 words at this stage)

• Does it make sense the way you have written it?

  • Are the examples proper?

  • Is there a logical flow of thoughts (sequence of ideas)?

 

If there is a new structure, is the new structure better than the outline?  Or should you change your draft to reflect the organization of the outline more closely.  You must judge.

 

Certainly, the sentences themselves should express complete thoughts and you should change them if they do not. You should also pay attention to the order of the sentences to make sure that your points are made clearly and easily lead the reader to your conclusion.

 

One hint at this stage: often, new writers will forget that they are writing to an audience, a reader, who must follow their thoughts.  As a writer, you are creating a logical path of ideas, feelings, and images for the readers to follow. You have to make sure that each step along the path is clear (directly stated, understandable) so that the reader does not become confused.  Remember, the readers cannot stop and ask questions if they don’t understand; they can only attempt to figure out what you are trying to communicate based on what you have written. Remember, only you know what you are trying to say with your written words. It is most important for your readers to be able to follow (understand) what you have written.

 

So carefully follow the logic (sequence of ideas) of what you are saying.  For example, look for instances where you may have assumed something. Clarify these assumptions (explain them, define your terms; for example, a fact or a connection or relationship). Make sure that each logical step in your explanation or discussion is communicated clearly (explicitly) to your readers.                                               

 

It is often very helpful to read your essay aloud to yourself.  Sometimes you can hear the missing thoughts, relationships, and facts when you listen to what is written. 

 

It is also extremely helpful to have your writing read by others: family, friends, peers or classmates. Please note that research studies have shown that students who work together in study groups succeed more often than students who try to go it alone. 

 

Learning is a process of communication. It involves practice. Having others read your writing and respond to it is practice for you in understanding how well you are communicating in writing. When they get it, when they understand what you are trying to express, it is proof of your skill.

 

Your readers’ responses should be considered carefully when editing your work.  Was there consistent confusion about something you were trying to express?  Should you re-write some sentences to make things more clear and avoid confusion? 

 

This is not a time to become possessive of your words.  Even though you have worked hard to produce them, they may not be the most effective words to use.  Or their order may need to be changed.  Remember, this is not about ego, it is about transcending (overcoming) your ego (your own private self) and communicating with another person (a different ego). But remember, you should always OWN YOUR WORDS! Part of this is making sure that your words are easily understood by others. What good are words if you can’t use them properly to communicate what you want to say?

 

Step Seven: Second Draft

 

You will always have a second draft, as it is the result of your editing of your first draft. The second draft is the clean copy after your editorial changes have been made. (This is what word processing software is designed to do.)

 

Of course, you can have many drafts, so the drafting and editing steps can repeat many times before you are satisfied with your work because you have expressed your thoughts effectively.

 

Step Eight: More Editing

                                                

If your second draft is not your final draft, then edit again.

 

Step Nine: Proofreading

 

This is a critical skill.  In class, I tell my students that proofreading can raise their scores a full letter grade: it can make the difference between an A and a B. A document (essay) that is properly proofread reads well and indicates that the writer has control of the language.

 

Proofreading instructions:

 

Good proofreading involves completing each of the following (first you might want to review the discussion of formal language in Chapter I):

 

Form: Review of the structure: here you will once again compare the essay to your outline to be sure that all of the necessary parts of the essay are included.  

 

Spelling: Spelling counts! You may recall the discussion of spelling in Chapter I.  If not, go back and re-read it, please!

 

Paragraphs: make sure that you do not have any one sentence paragraphs 

(See chapter I).

 

Formal language: Chapter I defines formal language as excluding the first and second persons (I and You and We). Be sure to review your writing for use of these pronouns and change to the impersonal ‘one’ (or its synonyms, see Chapter I).

 

Sentences: Remember, these express complete thoughts. You should review every sentence to be sure it has a predicate and a subject.  (See Chapter I and your grammar handbook.)

 

Punctuation: Be sure every sentence ends with proper punctuation, including commas and semi-colons when necessary. (See Chapter I and your grammar handbook.)

 

Capitalization: Be sure every sentence as well as every proper noun begins with a capital letter. Be sure every sentence begins with a capital letter. (See Chapter I and your grammar handbook.)

 

Fragments: Be sure to identify sentence fragments. Find these parts of sentences and fix them by adding the missing elements or joining the clause or phrase with the preceding or following sentence. (See Chapter I and your grammar handbook.)

 

Run-on sentences: Find these sentences, which express more than one thought and fix them by creating more than one sentence. (See Chapter I and your grammar handbook.)

 

Grammar: Chapters I and IX review some of the more frequent grammar issues new English learners struggle with.

 

Do’s and Don’t Lists: Chapters VII, VIII and IX contain lists of words, phrases and expressions to avoid and to include in your formal writing. When proofreading, you should apply these lists to your work.  While the lists cannot include everything, they are composed of many of the most common errors in the process of learning to write English.

 

Writing Essays

 

At the freshman college level, the student is expected to be able to write an essay of approximately 500 to 600 words. However, I always ask my students to begin with 350 words and work up to 500. Each essay must have an introduction and a conclusion. 

 

The introduction can be one paragraph of three or more sentences. As each sentence will be 7 to 12 words, the introduction should consist of 50 to 75 words.

 

There should generally be at least three or four paragraphs in your essay, in addition to the introduction and conclusion. Each paragraph should also be about 75 words.                                                                                             

The conclusion can be one paragraph, also approximately 50 to 75 words is fine.

 

Add this all up and you get:

 

            Essay Section              Approximate Number of Words

           Introduction                            75 words

             Paragraph 1                            75 words

            Paragraph 2                            75 words

            Paragraph 3                            75 words

            Paragraph 4                            75 words

            Conclusion                              75 words

                  Total:                                       450 words

​

Thinking about the task in this way can sometimes make it easier to complete. You can think about writing each section and then combining them all together to create the final essay.

 

Think Outline or how to write a college level essay

 

Chapter III discussed the fact that formal knowledge has a structure, which is ‘hierarchical’.  A ‘hierarchy’ is a top to bottom organization, such as the ranking of academic degrees. Here are the four common levels of college degrees:

 

Doctoral Degree         4 more years

Master’s Degree         2 or 3 years more

Bachelor’s Degree       4 year degree

Associates Degree      2 year degree

 

One can see hierarchies in all walks of life.  In a corporation, it is a hierarchy of authority or decision-making: 

​

Chairperson of the Board

Board of Directors

Chief Executive Officer or President

Vice President

Department Manager

Supervisor

Staff

 

In the Army, the hierarchy of command is:

 

General

Colonel

Major

Captain

Sergeant

Corporal

Private

 

Each title has authority over those below.  All those below are responsible to those above.  One of the strong points of hierarchies is that all know their place. Along with one’s place, come roles and responsibilities that must be fulfilled.

 

These illustrations are simple hierarchies, with a straight top to bottom flow of authority, power or decision-making responsibility. The hierarchy of an essay unfolds in each paragraph: general statements are followed by (supported with) specific facts or proof. Each part of your essay has a specific role to play: the introduction tells the reader what the essay is about; the body of the essay presents explanations, questions, answers and proof (examples) and the conclusion provides a summary of what you have said and the final message you want to leave for your readers.

 

When creating an outline, we do not use Arabic numbers but customarily use Roman numerals for headings: 

 

Roman Numeral         Arabic Numeral

I                                    1

II                                   2

III                                  3

IV                                  4

V                                   5

VI                                  6

VII                                 7

VIII                                8

IX                                 10

L                                  50

C                                 100

M                               1000

 

At this point I usually ask my students why they think that the world uses the Arabic numerals and not the Roman ones. I give the following example to show why:

 

Can you perform this math?

 

         1155                       MCLVV

              x  1036                x      MXXXVI

    1,196,580                      ????????

​

We can do the math on the left because of the zero, the placeholder. We say to ourselves, 6 times 5 is 30, put the zero in the ones column and carry the 3 (tens). We cannot do this with the Roman numerals, because there is no symbol for zero and no places to hold. 

The world adopted Arabic numerals because of their facility with large quantities. When buying and selling or trading goods, it is necessary to have the ability to calculate and figure amounts and returns (profits). Using the Arabic numbers works much better!

Standard Outline Format

 

Essentially, there are three parts to a college essay:

 

The Introduction

The Body

The Conclusion

​

I tell my students that the following outline can be the basic outline for every essay they will write:

I. Introduction: what you are going to say

            A. Focus the reader

            B. Define your terms

 

II. Paragraph 1 (topic sentence)

            A. Statements 

            B. Examples

 

III. Paragraph 2 (topic sentence)

            A. Statements

            B. Examples 

 

IV. Paragraph 3 (topic sentence)

            A. Statements

            B. Examples 

 

V. Conclusion: what you said/summary

 

Please note that each statement or example could be more than one sentence.

 

Let us look at each of these components (parts, aspects) of the outline in some detail:

 

The Introduction:

 

I tell my students to write the introduction last. This is because, until you actually write your essay, you don’t know what it is going to say. It is true that you have a good idea, but until you actually write it you won’t know how it has come out. This doesn’t always work for everyone, but if you are having trouble starting, try starting in the middle. 

 

Some students are taken aback at the idea of writing the introduction last, and probably many don’t actually do this. But think about it, especially if you have trouble staring at a blank page.  Starting in the middle can often overcome this writer’s block (an inability to write).  Many writers do this as well.

 

The introduction should accomplish two tasks: 

 

• it should explain the purpose of the essay to the reader 

• and it should define your terms. 

 

The reader should know what you are writing about and should understand the terms you are using. You must decide which words are important and require definition.

 

For example, in an essay about love, one must be sure to state what kind of love one is writing about, that is, brotherly love, romantic love, or family love. Otherwise, one’s general statements about love will not necessarily be understood properly. In the introduction, one can clarify and define, setting the reader up to understand what you are communicating. 

 

The body:

 

The body of your essay should be three or four paragraphs. This is called the content of your essay. 

​

You will make statements and provide examples.  

You will communicate facts or opinions and refer to (cite) authorities for proof. 

You will pose (ask) questions and perhaps answer them. 

If you are contrasting two things, you will define and explain the characteristics of each idea you are comparing.

 

The Conclusion:

 

I tell my students not to write the conclusion until the body is finished, for the same reason that the introduction is written last. Until you have written the essay, you cannot be sure exactly what you will write.

 

Your conclusion can either be a restatement of the essential points of the essay (sometimes called the argument or the logic of the essay), a summary of what was said or a conclusion that you make.  

 

A summary is a brief, short, compact, succinct, compact, comprehensive (look these words up!) statement of what your essay is about. 

 

Never introduce new ideas in your conclusion.

​

Never use examples in your conclusion.

​

Your conclusion is a general re-restatement of your major points, questions, statements, etc.

 

AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL, DO NOT EXPRESS YOUR OPINION

UNLESS YOU ARE SPECIFICALLY ASKED TO STATE YOUR OPINION!

 

In fact, not until much later in your college career will what you think truly be of interest to others. 

​

Students always ask, “But isn’t everything I say my opinion, so why can’t I use the first person?” 

 

THE TRICK IS TO STATE YOUR OPINION IN GENERAL TERMS.

​

Incorrect: 

“I think the conditions in the school cafeteria should be improved because students are complaining.”

​

Correct:

“The conditions in the school cafeteria should be improved because the students are complaining.”

 

Sample Essay Outlines

 

Here are some sample outlines for different essay types.  The first is one of two outlines for a compare/contrast essay:

 

Sample Essay Outline I:         Compare/contrast #1: A as compared to B 

​

1. Introduction explaining what you will be doing

   1. Define A

   2. Define B

   3. Define any other terms you are using

2. Explain/Discuss A

   1. Define/justify/reference Aspect 1

      1. Example 1

      2. Example 2

   2. Define/justify/reference Aspect 2

      1. Example 3

               2.   Example 4

​

1. Explain/Discuss B

   1. Define/justify/reference Aspect 1

      1. Example 5

      2. Example 6

   2. Define/justify/reference Aspect 2

      1. Example 7

      2. Example 8

2. Conclusion: Comparison (what you have shown)

   1. Aspect 1 A / B

B.  Aspect 2 A / B

 

Here, your task is to compare A to B. In the introduction, you must define both A and B and explain to the reader that you are comparing them. Let’s brainstorm and use apples for A and oranges for B. So this essay is a comparison of apples and oranges.

 

This outline shows that there are two aspects of A and B that will be compared: aspect 1 and aspect 2. You will use the same aspects for each of the items compared. Brainstorming again, let’s say, for example, the skin of the fruit and the meat of the fruit. There will be 2 examples for each aspect for both A and B, making for 8 examples all told. 

 

In the first paragraph of the body (beginning with Roman numeral II) we will explain or discuss apples: why we chose them, what is important about them: we might say that they are delicious, that they grow all over the country, that there are many different types of apples. 

 

The second paragraph of the body would identify aspect 1 (the skin of the fruit) and explain why this has been chosen as a characteristic of comparison (for example, perhaps because all fruit have skins). 

 

Then two examples of this aspect will be given: 

 

For example, apple skin is red or green or yellow and apple skin is thin.

​

The next paragraph would identify aspect 2 (the meat of the fruit) and also justify why this has been selected as a means of comparison (for example, perhaps because this is the part humans seek to eat). 

 

Our two examples might be the juiciness of the fruit and the crisp texture of the fruit. 

 

After identifying your aspects and giving your examples, you then move to B, the second item of comparison (oranges).  

 

Once again, you would introduce oranges and explain why you have chosen them or why it is important to compare them with apples. For example, you might say that oranges grow in hot, humid climates and that the juice is a favorite of Americans for breakfast.

 

The next paragraph would discuss aspect 1 of B (the skin of the orange) and provide two examples that relate to or illustrate what you are saying.  For example, the skin of the orange is orange in color and the skin of an orange is thick.

 

Next, aspect 2 of oranges (the meat of the orange) will be discussed, with two examples provided (perhaps that the meat is sectioned and that each section contains much juice as well as meat).

 

Then, your conclusion will summarize: apples are red, thin skinned, juicy and crisp while oranges are orange, thick skinned, sectioned inside and also very juicy.  Obviously, there are some similarities and differences between the two fruits and you can point these out in your conclusion.

​

Sample Essay Outline II:                    

 

Compare/contrast #2: C as compared to D

 

1. Introduction

A. Define C

            B. Define D

II. Aspect 1: Define/justify/reference 

A.  Discuss Aspect 1 and C

                        1. Example 1

2. Example 2

B. Discuss Aspect 1 and D

1. Example 3

2. Example 4

III. Aspect 2: Define/justify/reference 

A. Discuss Aspect 2 and C

1. Example 5

2. Example 6

B.  Discuss Aspect 2 and D

1.  Example 7

2.  Example 8

IV. Conclusion: Summary

 

Here we will once again compare apples and oranges.  This time however, we will focus on the aspect first and make our observations of apples and oranges in the context of their skin and meat. Instead of discussing apples first and then oranges and then comparing the two, we will make comparisons as we go along.

 

In the introduction, we start out the same way: defining our terms and explaining what the essay is about. Then, however, we move right away to aspect 1 (the skin of the fruit).  We write about the skin of fruit, its function and purpose. Then we move to the skin of the apple and provide our two examples. 

 

Next, we discuss the skin if the orange, providing our two examples with reference to apple skin along the way.  For example, this paragraph might contain a sentence such as “Whereas the skin of the apple is smooth and red, the skin of an orange is orange in color, thick and bumpy.” 

​

Having compared apples and oranges with reference to their skins. The next paragraphs do the same with the meat of the fruit. I can imagine a sentence similar to this: “The fruit of the apple is a crisp whole that can be cut up into any shape while the meat of the orange is sectional, soft and cannot be easily reshaped.”

 

Lastly, the conclusion is again similar to the first outline, providing a summary of the comparisons of apples and oranges with regard to their skin and meat.

 

Sample Essay Outline III:                   

This essay calls for describing something, in this case, apples. The standard outline calls for three aspects selected (you could, of course, have more; the content sample shows three examples) and each will have two examples, for a total of six examples. Let us use the fact that there are different kinds of apples, that different parts of the apple are used for different purposes and that there are different ways humans use apples as symbols. 

The introduction will state the purpose of the essay (to describe the apple) and define what is meant by ‘apple’. This could be a description of the fruit and a little information about the history of the fruit, such as: Is it indigenous (native) to the United States?  

Descriptive Essay Subject E

Format Outline                                                           Content Outline

 

I.      Introduction                                                          I. Introduction

A.    State Purpose                                                    A. Description of the apple

B.    Define Terms (Define E)                                    B. Definition of the apple

      1. History of the apple in the U.S.

II.     Descriptive Aspect 1                                 II. That there are different kinds of apples

A.    Define aspect 1                                                  A.  different types defined

B.    Describe/apply to subject                                 B.  list of types

C.  Example 1 (Proof/Demonstration)                     C. characteristics of the different types

                                                                                    1. Skin color (red, yellow, green)

                                                                                    2. Tastes (tart, sweet)

D.  Example 2 (Proof/Demonstration)            D. uses of the different types

                                                                                    1. Baking

                                                                                    2. Eating

                                                                                    3. Juice

 

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III.   Descriptive Aspect 2                                 III. different parts of the apple are used for             …..                                                                                             different purposes

A.    Define aspect 2.                                                A. Different parts defined 

                                                                                                (skin, pulp, pits)

B.    Describe/apply to subject                               B. Pulp is used for apple sauce

C.  Example 3 (Proof/Demonstration)                C. Liquid is used for making juice

D.  Example 4 (Proof/Demonstration)                D. Mixed with flour for apple fritters

IV.   Descriptive Aspect 3                                             IV. Apples as human symbols

A.    Define Aspect 3                                                    A. Define apple as symbol’

B.    Describe/apply to subject                                    B. Apple as symbol of knowledge

C.  Example 5 (Proof/Demonstration)                        C. Apple as symbol of health

D.  Example 6 (Proof/Demonstration)                        D. Apple as symbol of preference

V.    Conclusion                                                            V. Conclusion

            A. Summary                                                                  A. Summary

 

Descriptive aspect 1 is the fact that there are many different kinds of apples. 

You might list some of the types, explaining different varieties, their different consistencies and tastes. 

• You might explain that some apples are better for baking, others for juice and yet other varieties are best for eating.

Descriptive aspect 2 is that different parts of the apple are used for different purposes. 

Your examples might be some of the different uses of apples (brainstorming: for example, apple sauce, apple fritters (pancakes), juice or just plain apples).

Descriptive aspect 3 is the different ways humans use apples as symbols.  

Brainstorming, one could come up with apples as a symbol of knowledge (as in the Biblical story of the Garden of Eden and the Tree of Knowledge), as a sign of health (as in the expression, “an apple a day keeps the doctor away”), and as an indication of preference (as in “His daughter is the apple of his eye.”)

Lastly, the conclusion could be a summary of the significant information provided, or even a statement reflecting (presenting) the significance of apples to American culture, such as the expression, “It is as American as apple pie’.